Why it matters
Comm math shapes scaling efficiency. Understanding shapes design.
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The architecture
All-reduce volume: 2 * (N-1)/N * bytes.
Time = volume / effective BW.
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How it works end to end
All-reduce time: 2(N-1)/N * data / BW.
Ring: bandwidth-optimal.
Latency floor: message-count * latency.
Overlap with compute.